1920s
Culture and Society thumb|300px|right|Duke Ellington performs with his famous orchestra the song, "I Must Have that Man." (source: Youtube) - By the end of the 1920s, nearly 90% of college-educated couples used some form of birth control. This increase in contraception is largely attributable to an increase in information about birth control, as well as the American Birth Control League run by Margaret Sanger. James West Davidson et. al, Experience History, 2nd ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: McGraw Hill, 2011), 665. - The Ku Klux Klan resurged in the 1920s. By 1924, the number of American clansmen was estimated at a staggering four million. Their activities ranged from strictly political actions to violent attacks on black communities. Alan Brinkley, American History: Connecting with the Past, 14th ed., Vol. 2 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012), 651. - The Harlem Renaissance emerged in the 1920s as African American intellectuals flocked to the uptown Manhattan neighborhood. Jazz, poetry, and other art forms took off through the work of such figures as Langston Hughes and Duke Ellington. Alan Brinkley, American History: Connecting with the Past, 14th ed., Vol. 2 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012), 649. - Spectator sports gained nationwide appeal during the decade. In 1921, approximately 60,000 spectators watched American boxing legend Jack Dempsey battle Frenchman Georges Carpentier. James West Davidson et, al, Experience History, 2nd ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: McGraw Hill, 2011), 668. ''- The Roaring Twenties was a period famous for the rise of great American authors like F. Scott Fitzgerald and Ernest Hemingway, but many such writers left for Paris to seek out a decidedly different culture. James P. Roark et. al, ''The American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2010), 575. - The new Klan drew on the culture of small-town America. It was nationalistic, gave to local charities, and wore the kind of outfits and rituals used by many fraternal lodges. A typical gathering brought the whole family to a grill with fireworks and hymn singing, topped by the burning of a huge cross. James W. Davidson et al, U.S. A Narrative History, Vol. 2 (New York, McGraw Hill, 2009) 503. - In the end, the Klan was undone by sex scandals and financial corruption. Its political power waned after 1925, when the grand dragon of the Indiana Klan was sentenced to life imprisonment for rape and second-degree murder. James W. Davidson et al, U.S. A Narrative History, Vol. 2 (New York, McGraw Hill, 2009) 503. - New and more generous laws led to a sharp rise in the amount of divorces; by 1928, there were 166 divorces for every 1000 marriages, compared to 81 in 1900. H.W. Brands et al, A History of the United States (Upper Saddle River, Pearson Education 2009) 684. - In bigger cities, some women rapidly adopted the “flapper” image. Cutting their hair short, raising their skirts over the knee, and binding their breasts, “flappers” sought to compare on equal terms with men. H.W. Brands et al, A History of the United States (Upper Saddle River, Pearson Education 2009) 684. - The city substituted the countryside as the pivotal point of American life in the 1920s. H.W. Brands et al, A History of the United States (Upper Saddle River, Pearson Education 2009) 682. - The 1920 census exposed that for the first time, marginally over half of the population lived in cities. H''.W. B''rands et al, A History of the United States (Upper Saddle River, Pearson Education 2009) 683. - The Red Scare exercised a continuous effect on American society in the 1920s. The foreign born lived with the understanding that they were regarded with aggression and suspicion. H.W. Brands et al, A History of the United States (Upper Saddle River, Pearson Education 2009) 689. - By 1923 there were nearly 600 radio stations and about 600,000 Americans owned radios.'' John Faragher et al, Out of Money (Upper Saddle River, Pearson Education 2009) 650.'' - The New York Daily News was the first newspaper to acquire the “tabloid style”'' John Faragher et al, Out of Money (Upper Saddle River, Pearson Education 2009) 651.'' - Phonograph gained popularity in 1920. And by 1921 more than 200 companies manufactured some 2 million records. John Faragher et al, Out of Money (Upper Saddle River, Pearson Education 2009) 652. - During the 1920’s major league baseball had more fans than any other sport. Babe Ruth helped to popularize the sport John Faragher et al, Out of Money (Upper Saddle River, Pearson Education 2009) 651. Commerce and Economy - The 1920s witnessed a boom in employment for women, though their occupations still fit traditional gender roles. These positions, or pink-collar jobs, were usually of a secretarial nature. Alan Brinkley, American History: Connecting with the Past, 14th ed., Vol. 2 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012), 638. - In the 1920s, a serious wealth inequality existed in America despite the economic growth. Greater than 66% of Americans lived at or below what economists call a "minimum comfort level." Alan Brinkley, American History: Connecting with the Past, 14th ed., Vol. 2 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012), 635. - In order to prevent worker backlash, some employers utilized a new concept called welfare capitalism, wherein employers provided certain welfare-related benefits to the workers. Henry Ford is one such example, as he provided his employees with higher pay and a shorter workweek. Alan Brinkley, American History: Connecting with the Past, 14th ed., Vol. 2 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012), 635. - The standardization of the assembly line had a negative effect on skilled workers and a positive effect on employers: Manufacturing productivity increased 32% between 1922-1929 while wages increased by only 8%. James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2010), 573. ''- American consumerism went into full effect with the introduction of installment buying. This process allowed a consumer to purchase a new good by making a small initial payment followed by incremental monthly payments. James P. Roark et. al, ''The American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2010), 575. ''- The pro-business Washington of the decade worked diligently to create a bond between the federal government and the private sector. This fact is perhaps best embodied by Andrew Mellon's time as treasury secretary. The famous steel magnate made concerted efforts to reduce corporate taxes and personal income tax. Alan Brinkley, ''American History: Connecting with the Past, 14th ed., Vol. 2 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012), 656. ''- Early causes and warning signs to the Great Depression presented themselves in the late 1920s. By 1928, the previously flourishing construction industry started to decline. James West Davidson et. al, ''Experience History, 2nd ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: McGraw Hill, 2011), 682. ''- Due to a significant decrease in consumer spending, business inventories saw a staggering rise. In 1928, business inventories stood at $500 million. By 1929, inventories were measured at $1.8 billion. James West Davidson et. al, ''Experience History, 2nd ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: McGraw Hill, 2011), 682. ''- Black Thursday took place on October 24, 1929, when a massive number of orders to sell stock were issued by concerned investors. The result was a record $3 billion in market losses. James West Davidson et. al, ''Experience History, 2nd ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: McGraw Hill, 2011), 681. - On Tuesday, October 29, 1929, the week after Black Thursday, stockholders lost $10 billion as fear spread and "New Era" optimism dwindled. James West Davidson et. al, Experience History, 2nd ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: McGraw Hill, 2011), 681. ''- The economic vitality of the Roaring Twenties was clearly deteriorated by the end of the decade. During the 1920s, 6,000 banks failed and half of America's 25,000 banks were unprotected by the Federal Reserve. James West Davidson et. al, ''Experience History, 2nd ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: McGraw Hill, 2011), 682. - The most characteristic feature of the new consumer-oriented economy was the importance of marketing. H.W. Brands et al, A History of the United States (Upper Saddle River, Pearson Education 2009) 683. - Advertising wages rose from $1.3 billion in 1915 to $3.4 billion in 1926. H.W. Brands et al, A History of the United States (Upper Saddle River, Pearson Education 2009) 683. - There was a weakening in many old-style industries in the 1920’s. By 1921, farm exports had dropped by over $2 billion. H.W. Brands et al, A History of the United States (Upper Saddle River, Pearson Education 2009) 683. - American financial connections to Europe persisted and even grew during the 1920’s, but the United States maintained its isolationist status H.W. Brands et al, A History of the United States (Upper Saddle River, Pearson Education 2009) 727. - A&P ruled the retail food industry, increasing from 400 stores in 1912 to 15,500 by 1932.'' H'.W. Brands et al, A History of the United States (Upper Saddle River, Pearson Education 2009) 683.'' - By 1929 the normal income per farmworker was $223, compared to $870 for nonfarm workers John Faragher et al, Out of Money (Upper Saddle River, Pearson Education 2009) 647. Politics and Law - Alcohol prohibition began in 1919, but the federal government struggled to enforce the new law throughout the 1920s. The government hired a mere 1500 agents for the purpose of enforcing the ban on liquor. Alan Brinkley, American History: Connecting with the Past, 14th ed., Vol. 2 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012), 649. - Women gained ground politically. In 1921, Congress passed the Sheppard-Towner Act, which allocated money to states for child and prenatal health initiatives. Alan Brinkley, American History: Connecting with the Past, 14th ed., Vol. 2 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012), 645. - The 1920s was a republican decade in which Warren Harding and Calvin Coolidge ensured a pro-business environment in Washington. Alan Brinkley, American History: Connecting with the Past, 14th ed., Vol. 2 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012), 656. - Members of the President Harding's administration engaged in corruption and fraud, and the infamous 1922 Teapot Dome scandal—which involved Secretary of Interior Albert Fall convincing the president to give the interior department control of oil reserves in Wyoming and California for private gain—tainted the Harding administration's legacy. Alan Brinkley, American History: Connecting with the Past, 14th ed., Vol. 2 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012), 654. - President Harding died of a major heart attack while on a speaking tour in 1923, making him the sixth American president to die in office. Calvin Coolidge succeeded him as president. Alan Brinkley, American History: Connecting with the Past, 14th ed., Vol. 2 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012), 654. - Coolidge chose not to run for reelection in 1928, despite the likelihood that he would win the general election. Alan Brinkley, American History: Connecting with the Past, 14th ed., Vol. 2 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012), 655. - Religious fundamentalism played a role in shaping the 1920s and was embodied in the 1925 Scopes trial. A Tennessee biology teacher taught evolution to his class, despite the ban on the controversial topic. The trial exposed flaws in the arguments of religious fundamentalists—namely William Jennings Bryan—lessening their political influence. Alan Brinkley, American History: Connecting with the Past, 14th ed., Vol. 2 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012), 652-653. - In 1925, Prohibition agents were successful in destroying more than 172,000 illegal stills. James L. Roark et al, American Promise: A Compact History, 4th Ed., Vol. 2, (Boston: Bedford/St. Martins 2010) 575. - The xenophobia stemming from immigration problems permeated American society and the judicial system. In 1927, Italian immigrants Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti were executed for muder in what many perceived as an unfair, prejudicial verdict. James L. Roark et. al, American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2, (Boston: Bedford/St. Martins 2010), 583. - The Eighteenth Amendment, which banned the manufacturing, trade, and movement of alcohol, took effect in January 1920. '' ''John Faragher et al, Out of Money (Upper Saddle River, Pearson Education 2009) 655. - In 1920 Women were allowed to vote. J''ohn F''aragher et al, Out of Money (Upper Saddle River, Pearson Education 2009) 659. - 1921 Congress passed Immigration Act setting a maximum of 357,000 new immigrants each year allowed into the United States. John Faragher et al, Out of Money (Upper Saddle River, Pearson Education 2009) 664. - 1924 National Origins Act restricted immigration to white Europeans eligible for entry into the United States by country of origin, while it separated the rest of the world into “five colored races” (black, mulatto, Chinese, and Indian)'' J''ohn Faragher et al, Out of Money (Upper Saddle River, Pearson Education 2009) 657. - “The Great Migration” took off in the 1920’s. African American communities grew rapidly in Northern cities. Ex. Between 1920-1930 around 120,000 new black arrivals settled in Harlem giving it a black population of roughly 200,000'' John Faragher et al, Out of Money (Upper Saddle River, Pearson Education 2009) 664.' - Herbert Hoover won the 1928 Presidential race. John Faragher et al, Out of Money (Upper Saddle River, Pearson Education 2009) 668.'' - In 1921 the Sheppard-Towner Act created the first federally funded health care program.'' John Faragher et al, Out of Money (Upper Saddle River, Pearson Education 2009) 668.'' - In the 1920s, conservative Republicans with pro-business policies ruled the government. Roy Rosenzweig et al, Who Built America (Boston, Bedford/St. Martin’s 2008) 336. - The 1920 presidential election set the political attitude for the decade. Both major parties designated middle-of-the-road politicians from Ohio: Republican Senator Warren G. Harding and Democratic Governor James Cox. Harding, exploiting the weariness from WW1, won the election by a landslide victory. Roy Rosenzweig et al, Who Built America (Boston, Bedford/St. Martin’s 2008) 336. - The finding of substantial corruption after Harding’s unexpected death in 1923 ruined his modest reputation. Roy Rosenzweig et al, Who Built America (Boston, Bedford/St. Martin’s 2008) 337. Wars and Foreign Relations - The republican-led Washington D.C. of the 1920s renounced interventionism—the previous modus operandi ''for American foreign policymakers. James L. Roark et. al, ''American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martins 2010), 572. - The United States, in lockstep with its newfound non-internationalist ideology, refused membership in the League of Nations. James L. Roark et. al, American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martins 2010), 572. - Though the decade was marked by deft, pro-business policies generated by republican administrations, notable foreign policy accomplishments also occurred. The Five Power Naval Treaty of 1922 sought international peace through reducing naval powers. Britain, France, Japan, Italy and the United States participated in reducing their warship fleets. James L. Roark et. al, American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martins 2010), 572. - In order to reduce the risk of a return to war, American business leaders established the Dawes Plan in 1924, reducing Germany's reparation cost and injecting the dismal German economy with American loans. James L. Roark et. al, American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martins 2010), 572. - Though the U.S. aided Germany through the enactment of the Dawes Plan, the White House demanded the repayment of Allied war loans, complicating an already complex system of debt and further damaging the European economy. James L. Roark et. al, American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martins 2010), 586. - To further complicate the debt mess created by war loan, American banks agreed to finance foreign customers seeking to buy American goods.'' James L. Roark et. al, ''American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martins 2010), 586. - In an effort to improve domestic businesses, America instituted tariffs preventing foreign countries from selling goods to U.S. citizens. James L. Roark et. al, American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martins 2010), 586. - The decrease in trade caused by American tariffs led to less European capital, wherein foreign countries had less purchasing power for American goods. James L. Roark et. al, American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martins 2010), 586. ''- Secretary of State Frank Kellogg and French foreign minister Aristide Briand created the Kellogg-Briand Pact in 1928. Close to fifty countries agreed to denounce war and solve international conflicts diplomatically. The pact comforted Americans, who viewed it as a step toward global peace. James L. Roark et. al, ''American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martins 2010), 572. - The American mix of exuberance, hedonism, and anxiety was mimicked by other countries. As a postwar peace extended, many of the world’s political systems seemed to employ Woodrow Wilson’s dream of a world of safe democracy. James W. Davidson et al, U.S. A Narrative History, Vol. 2 (New York, McGraw Hill, 2009). 510 - By the late 1920s the United States had interceded in Latin America so habitually that the Roosevelt Corollary had developed into an embarrassment. Slowly, however, American managements began to moderate those high-handed strategies. James W. Davidson et al, U.S. A Narrative History, Vol. 2 (New York, McGraw Hill, 2009). 543. - In 1927, when Mexico seized American-owned properties, President Coolidge sent an ambassador to deal with the issue rather than the military. James W. Davidson et al, U.S. A Narrative History, Vol. 2 (New York, McGraw Hill, 2009). 543. - In the Southwest, Mexicans and Mexican Americans developed a special target of worry. The Spanish had populated the area for nearly 400 years, creating a rich mixture of European and Indian cultures. In the 1920s American farmers in exploration of cheap employment opened a movement to entice Mexican farm workers James W. Davidson et al, U.S. A Narrative History, Vol. 2 (New York, McGraw Hill, 2009). 501-502. - Spanish-speaking newcomers settled into life of family and festivals, churchgoing, hard labor, and slow adaptation. The census of 1930 registered almost 1.5 million Mexicans living in the United States, not including the ones who had arrived in the country illegally. James W. Davidson et al, U.S. A Narrative History, Vol. 2 (New York, McGraw Hill, 2009). 502. - WWI enhanced the procedure by which women left the home for work. H.W. Brands et al, A History of the United States (Upper Saddle River, Pearson Education 2009) 684. - Asians managed even worse under the Johnson-Reid Act, which barred all immigrants who were unqualified for citizenship.'' Roy Rosenzweig et al, Who Built America (Boston, Bedford/St. Martin’s 2008) 342.'' - To open the “door” for American business, Charles Evans Hughes, secretary of state under Harding and Coolidge, used federal power to help American business expand overseas. Roy Rosenzweig et al, Who Built America (Boston, Bedford/St. Martin’s 2008) 339. - Private voluntary establishments such as the YMCA and Rotary International started branches in other countries in the 1920s. Roy Rosenzweig et al, Who Built America (Boston, Bedford/St. Martin’s 2008) 340. - American companies began to build factories in other countries to take advantage of inexpensive labor, small tariffs, and easy admittance to raw resources and markets. Roy Rosenzweig et al, Who Built America (Boston, Bedford/St. Martin’s 2008) 340. Science and Technology - KDKA Pittsburgh, America's first official radio station, took to the airwaves in 1920. James L. Roark et. al, American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martins 2010), 579. - Between 1922-1929, radio stations boomed from only 30 to 606 nationwide. James L. Roark et. al, American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martins 2010), 579. - One of the greatest catalysts for radio's expansive growth across the country was advertising dollars. Companies identified radios as a new medium through which they could reach potential customers. James L. Roark et. al, American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martins 2010), 579. - The motion picture industry surged during the Roaring Twenties. By the end of the decade, more than 100 million people every week were going to the movies. James West Davidson et. al, Experience History, 2nd ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: McGraw Hill, 2011), 667. - The technological advances of the motion picture industry led to film actors becoming household names. Charlie Chaplin is perhaps the most famous example of this new "cult of celebrity." James L. Roark et. al, American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martins 2010), 578. - More than 10 million households had radios by the end of the decade. James L. Roark et. al, American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martins 2010), 579. - As the automobile industry flourished, older technologies became archaic. The streetcar saw considerably less use and started to disappear from American cities during the decade. James L. Roark et. al, American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martins 2010), 573. ''- The automobile industry created millions of peripheral jobs through the creation of derivative industries: filling stations, fast-food restaurants, and garages all came into existence in the 1920s. James L. Roark et. al, ''American Promise: A Compact History, 4th ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martins 2010), 572. - Two-thirds of all American families lived with electricity by the end of the 1920s. H.W. Brands et al, A History of the United States (Upper Saddle River, Pearson Education 2009) 682. - The automobile boom, at its peak from 1922 to 1927, relied on the seemingly unquenchable taste of the American people for cars. H.W. Brands et al, A History of the United States (Upper Saddle River, Pearson Education 2009) 681. - In 1920, 10 million cars existed in America; by the end of the decade, twenty-six million could be found. H.W. Brands et al, A History of the United States (Upper Saddle River, Pearson Education 2009) 681. - With the arrival of the “talkies” by 1929, average weekly movie attendance ascended to about 100 million.'' H.W. Brands et al, A History of the United States (Upper Saddle River, Pearson Education 2009) 682.'' - In 1923the first ever sound on film motion picture, "Phonofilm," is shown in the Rivoli Theatre in New York City by Lee de Forest.'' John Faragher et al, Out of Money (Upper Saddle River, Pearson Education 2009) 605.'' - 1927 Taylor Farnsworth invents electronic television system. The system would be patented three years later on August 26, 1930. John Faragher et al, Out of Money (Upper Saddle River, Pearson Education 2009) 657. - By 1929 the motor vehicle industry was the most productive in the United States The industry added 4.8 million cars to the 26 million already in use. John Faragher et al, Out of Money (Upper Saddle River, Pearson Education 2009) 607.